Plato and his theories Part 2

Lessons Platón.Felipe Giménez. Professor of philosophy at IES.



5.2. Nature of Ideas.

Ideas are objective entities, transcendent, independent of our consciousness, representations that are provided both the real possibility of their knowledge as reliable and accurate. The ideas are immutable and eternal, atopic and acronyms. Plato speaks generally of the ideas in a more or less metaphorical: not exist in the sensible world. There are so transcendent, in a cosmos itself, the kosmos noetos, separated from the phenomenal world, empirical, sensible. The intelligible world is real. The quasi-sensible world is real, it's spooky, appariential. The intelligible world is necessary, consistent, unchanging. The sensible world is not only ontological thickness and consistency, is contingent, is in constant evolution and change. In any case, Plato attributes four characteristics to safely Ideas: 1) Ideas are eternal or timeless, 2) The ideas are unique, ie, each general or abstract term corresponds one and only one idea, 3) Ideas are simple, and 4) The ideas are unalterable, remain unchanged or after processing, always remain identical to themselves.

The essence of the theory of Ideas is the conscious acceptance of a class of entities which may be the better name of "universal", which are entirely different from sensible things.

The theory of ideas is not limited to geometry, but it covers everything, especially the field of morals. There are forms or perfect ideas of the Good, Justice, Virtue, Beauty.

Our knowledge of Ideas is what allows us to speak truth to sensitive individuals. But the only sensible material objects and participate in the imperfect and fleeting ideas. Therefore, the knowledge that they have is always imperfect and fleeting. True knowledge is perfect and permanent, does not relate intelligible forms sensitive objects (ever-changing relationship), but intelligible forms intelligible forms (eternal and unchanging relationship) in the development of this knowledge-eidetic field exploration and their eternal relations between its eternal ideas-is precisely the task of the philosopher and the dialectic is precisely this subtle art of discovering the relationships between ideas and back (regressus, ascending dialectic) and the unconditional basis (the Idea of ​​the Good) and then from the progress (progressus, descending dialectic) and order knowledge from it.

Regarding the relationship between empirical objects and ideas, such a relationship may be of imitation (mimesis) in the first dialogue or participation (methexis) in the later dialogues.

5.3. The Dialectic.

The determination of something is both the identification of other things, any "kind" (species is the Latin translation of eidos and properly means "look") is defined by division (diaíresis) from a determination "superior" to Plato calls the genos (Latin genus, "kind") and involving both the species defined as its opposite on the definition in question which, therefore, is defined to the species from which we tried. Knowledge of the relationships between ideas, his symploke, how about participating in other determinations and are defined with each other is what Plato calls dialectic (legein "determine", "define" dialogue, "moving from the one to the other "). The dialectic itself contains the notion of unity of opposites.

Knowledge of the ideas, then, passing from one determination to another, assuming the interdependence of the determinations, the determination is such ination from an earlier or later and by division (diaíresis) it. What is the ultimate determination is final, which was "rising" (Synagogue, anairein). We think that it comes this way and that does not allow further promotion?, the simple determination of body, but "being" is "Idea", therefore, the determination of being is "the Idea of ​​Ideas", Plato given a name: I tou agathou idea ("Idea of ​​the Good").

This dialectic Platonic includes two stages (see Rep., VI, 511b, and Phaedrus, 265 d):

a) an ascending dialectic (anairein, synagogues) that rises from idea to idea to remove any hypothesis, even the idea of ​​all ideas, that is, the Good, which surpasses in majesty and power to the essence and is Consequently, beyond it (kai presbeia epekeina dynamei ousias teas, Rep., VI, 509 b). The dialectic is rising because of the many into the one to discover the principle of everything and, finally, the principle of principles, this is the dialectic that Socrates uses in its moral dialogues.

b) a descending dialectic (diaíresis) which seeks, through the power of reason, the different consequences of that assumption lacking principle upon which everything rests, and thus reconstruct the series of ideas without having to resort to the experience . Plato compares thus, the dialectician with a butcher can dissect a body as its natural joints (Phaedrus, 265 e). The dialectic is down we find applied in "The Republic" and the "Timaeus".

With Plato it is the true philosophy or academic philosophy. Map out the philosophical method. Plato put it in his famous passage in "The Republic", Book VII, 532nd, and the structure of a process that necessarily part of the phenomena (and the concept of phenomena must include not only images and perceptions, but also the belief, pistis content) goes back to the essence (Synagogue, regressus) and then back again to the phenomena (diaíresis, progressus) in a circular motion. Return to the phenomena is equivalent to a rationalization of the same, but not their depletion: new content discovered in them by driving a movement progressus, also new, regressus.

6. The theory of Plato's ideal city.

Introduction.

Plato makes two claims: 1. All existing states are badly governed, without exception. 2. Therefore, it requires radical reform.

Plato puts into practice the project of knowledge indubitable. Sets the argument that the definition of the order of the City is just a science of politics, which is part of a wider know, what is the truth. Radical reform intends to make Plato makes the teaching of philosophy in a truth or a true pedagogy is the same. This pedagogy is political. The "true politician" is one that educates its condicudadanos in truth, the constant improvement of the appearance, which are constantly, therefore, the true politician is also a philosopher. Radical reform then passes through the study of philosophy which depends "to obtain a full and perfect view of what is fair." The wise man is to rule or ruling is to be wise. This brings us to criticize democracy regime in which all opinions are equal. System of Government of doxa, of opinion, which assumes that absolute truth does not exist or is impossible to meet, this thesis goes against the basic thesis of Platonic philosophy: that there is absolute truth and that it is possible to know.

Similarly, the rejection of democracy presupposes the refutation of the principles on which that system is founded, principles that the Sophists were spokesmen.

Fight 7.-democratic or aristocratic amorality.

None of the existing schemes satisfy Plato. Democracy is the kingdom of the Sophists, instead of enlightening the people are content to study their behavior and moral values ​​to build their appetites:

"Let each of the individual employee to whom such call sophists ... does not teach anything but the same principles as the vulgar expressed in their meetings, and this is what we call science. It is as if the guardian a large and powerful creature will learn good instincts and moods, and know where you have to approach him and touch him where and when it is more fierce or tame, and for what reasons and on what occasions often voice this or that issue and what, in contrast, soothe or irritate you when he hears another, and, once aware of all the experience of long familiarity, to consider this as a science, and, having composed a sort of system, be devoted to the ignoring what is really teaching these trends and appetites of beautiful or ugly, good or bad, fair or unfair, and use all these terms in accordance with the opinion of the great beast, calling good to that with which she enjoys and wrong that bothers her. " (Rep. VI, 493 a-c)

The policy of these demagogues is simply recording the fact, the reflection of the passions of the masses.



8. Political and moral justice.

Therefore, the first attempt of the philosopher is to establish morality in science and politics, which coincide in their common motor, the Good, which is different from the Truth and remove empiricism policy to link to eternal values. that fluctuations in the evolution not disturb. We must rediscover the definition of virtue that the Sophists sought to know and teach, of virtue that Socrates knew not to be confused with the worthless currency of the virtues in use. In this sense, Plato's attempt is aimed at preserving the moral and political relativism that Protagoras reduced. Political science must rediscover the ideal laws. Therefore forms a unity with philosophy, politics is not science only when kings are philosophers. It includes: Plato rejects all existing schemes. His position is radical. It's about building a scheme to escape becoming. These define the conditions under which a system is perfect and indestructible. Thus, the central problem of the Republic is the law, individual or collective (all is one). The policy is measured against the idea of ​​Justice, which is nothing but the Truth and the Good applied to social behavior.

Plato founds deducing politics as a science of justice. And certainly not as an objective description of political phenomena, but as a normative study of the theoretical principles of human government.

One of the Platonic political assumptions of the theory lies in the Gorgias affirmed and then in Book I of the Republic, that the unjust man is more unhappy than the fair or that injustice is the source of unhappiness, if not defined advance what they are injustice and justice as it is absurd qualities of the soul continue to insist on this thesis.

Thus we can say that the Republic raises the question: What is justice? This is all in what concerns the individual and society.

To analyze the justice in the individual must be studied first in the state, the polis. There is a structural correlation between the individual and the polis.

Justice is a virtue or excellence. You have to know the nature and structure of the state. For this, Socrates proposes to build a city ideally, so that it will be able to attend the future emergence of the elements or constituent parts.

The City is a response to the inability of individuals to satisfy their own needs themselves. Therefore, to have City needed in 1st place, a plurality of individuals that meet the basic needs of human life, food, clothing, housing and other basic needs then. All these trades make up the city's economic base and all the individuals who form the group exercise class or economically productive, which subviene to the needs of society, the class of producers or demiourgoi.

The development of the polis to certain forms of wealth and refinement necessary 2, the emergence of a new class or social group: the dedicated specifically to the maintenance of social harmony, public order, the extension of the territory and, in general, to the defense of this and the city against external aggression and internal disorders. This group consists of the guards. This army is professional. The guards have to be chosen from among those citizens who have special skills to do so (strength, speed, courage, love of truth) and must be educated and trained carefully in view of the role to be played. The tasks of government must be specifically allocated to a social group. A special group of citizens will have to govern. These will be recruited from among the guardians and will be the best of them. Thus is established a difference between Army Auxiliary {} / {rulers} perfect guards.

Returning to the myth of Phaedrus's winged chariot, two horses and the charioteer represent the three parts of the soul:

-To epithimetikón: appetite (the horse bad).

-To thimoeides: courage (the horse good).

-To logistikon: reason, the membership of the logos (the charioteer).

These are the three parts of the soul or three souls: appetitive and rational soul or concupiscible intelibible irascible.

Plato correspond to the three souls three "virtues" (Aretai), which are respectively: sophrosyne (temperance), Andrei (courage, bravery) and sophia (wisdom), for the latter also used phronesis (intelligence, sanity, scholastic translation: "prudence" as it is Andreia "strength").

In the polis that Plato draws in the Republic, to the three parts of the soul or souls are three parts of the polis, respectively demiourgoi (workers), fylakes (guardians, soldiers), arkhontes (rulers). Which each part is in place (ta eautou prattein: do the same for each) is another "virtue", which Plato calls "justice" (dikaiousyne).

Thus there is a perfect parallel with the state of the soul. Justice is the same in the City on the individual.

There are two principles of Platonism that apply in the Republic: "The principle of structural correlation between the state and the soul" and "principle of functional specialization."

1 ° There are structural identity between soul and state. The State is not outside the individual or the individual is something outside the state. We agree very necessary that the soul is the same parts as in the State. The State is not anything other than the individuals who compose it, and therefore, the State acquired the character and their way of life, not just the character but also the political regime. This is because the Greeks did not distinguish between civil society and state.

Each political regime corresponds to a type of character in individuals and the type of character that dominates the public determines the political regime and is determined by it.

Plato distinguishes three basic types of man, the philosopher, the ambitious and greedy, as they prevail in the love of knowledge, honors or riches.

The tripartition of the soul is somehow deduced the structure of the state. The three classes are derived from the functions necessary for the existence of a State, in conjunction with the principle of functional specialization, which requires that each party is responsible for a function and only one.

2 The principle of functional specialization means that there are structural correlation between individual and state.

The principle of functional specialization states that every individual and every social class have to perform only one function, that for which they are most qualified. This is a pragmatic justification. Specialization and division of labor increases efficiency and performance. It is a law required by the very nature of things. Everyone has to do things that are appropriate to their nature. All beings have a role and this role is the end to which they are designed course.

1. Citizens integrated in each social class exercise only social function that integrates class.

2. The inclusion of every citizen in the corresponding class has to be in line with their natural gifts, their inclinations and his capacity.

Plato conceived fundamentally education as an instrument to promote equality, but as a process aimed at developing and guiding the natural faculties. While it is true that all individuals are given the three parts of the soul, is no less true that one always predominates over the others.

The predominant part defines the character, skills and inclinations of each other and each is assigned a social class whose specific function is more consistent with his character.

The Platonic virtues (Scholastic calls the four cardinal virtues) are:

Prudence. It is political knowledge. It is an intellectual virtue that belongs to intellectual or episteme. Its object is the general good of the city to reach the good of its own.

Courage or strength. Knowledge also of what should be feared. It is only right opinion about the things to fear. Such a view has to be firm.

Temperance, moderation or morigeración, self-control. Agreement or harmony between what is inferior and what is superior about the party to govern.

Justice. Adequate enforcement of the principle of functional specialization. Justice is everyone doing his thing.

The degrees of knowledge and of knowledge in Republic VI-VII.

To solve the problem concerning the relationship or connection between the world of Ideas and the sensible world, and to explore carefully the eidetic field, in the Republic Plato used the dialectic. Above the doxa, opinion is science (episteme) or, more accurately, the multiplicity of the sciences, because Plato observes that each defines science, cut a piece of reality, a particular field, and which to study this particular field builds an explanatory hypothesis that because of the content of this field hypothesis is the hypothesis of no other science. For an argument that can compare in advance to those who efectuar_ Descartes concludes that there must be a very general science that is the budget of the sciences. But above this is what science itself is quite different from any hypothesis, the Good, the supreme principle we can not see. It is therefore necessary to go back to science anhipotética, which will be fundamental science. Plato alludes to it when speaking of the destruction of the hypotheses, let them destroy their value as a hypothesis, but that denies as fundamental truths.

All this science is a constitutive moment of the internal social and political process of the ideal city.

In Book VII of the Republic, Plato presents the myth of the cave. Plato tries to build an image or an explanatory model of the human condition or situation. We are prisoners in chains, paraded some images they see on the wall that is before them. If we want to represent them, not deal with images, but realities, we must imagine that a man driven by higher (the philosopher), to cross the edges of the cave, no doubt, to go out and look at the light, will be dazzled, but this is only the beginning. They will, however, in the region of the knowable, the region from which we can say that is dominated by the unknowable, because the nature of Good is barely visible and barely knowable, and that good is the universal cause of all certainty and of all beauty, as well as the Sun is the source of sensitive generations, the Good, intelligible sun, is the true source of all that exists in the intelligible world.

In Book VII of the Republic is plotted for the first time in the history of philosophy a typology of different types of knowledge in correspondence with the various ontic regions.

A. Episteme and Gnosis (knowledge of B. Doxa (belief, opinion

of noet) understood by the philosopher. Doxastad Objects (opinion)

Philotheamon's own or

Filodoxo.

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Aa Ab Ba Bb



Aa noesis (science, intuition) of eide (forms) by the dialectic.

Dianoia Ab (thinking, discursive knowledge) of mathematical objects, geometry, special sciences by the mathematician.

Ba pistis (belief, faith, belief) of animals, etc.. by the natural philosopher (physicist).

Eikasia Bb (conjecture, analogy, comparison, and analogy knowledge superficial similarity) of shadows, images, etc.. by the ordinary man, ordinary and uneducated people.

The first major segment, line A represents gnost (knowable) noet (unintelligible) or onta (realities). The second, B, called variously symbolizes gignomena things (what becomes), aistheta (visible), Doxastad (objects of belief or opinion) or Horat (visible). The visible is the complete domination of what is known as an opinion (doxa).

Object classes are, as Plato says repeatedly, those objects that are (onta) and those who become (gignomena). The mistake that vulgar or ordinary man is not to distinguish the onta gignomena perceptible, but thinks that there are only a set of objects, visible (Horat), which, however, he ascribes properties such as " reality "that belong only to onta.

The Ba and Bb pair can be considered respectively as a conviction or belief (pistis) or conjecture and faith (eikasia). Undoubtedly, the purpose of the line is primarily to distinguish between thought (dianoia) and intuitive knowledge (noesis) and that is why what you do not pay much attention to eikasia and pistis. But the distinction between Ba and Bb is, however, important. One can say that the ordinary man in the absence of philosophical education, lives its entire life in a state of eikasia while pistis is merely the first stage ephemeral and unsatisfactory when the man began his education.

Bb consists of shadows, echoes, reflections in mirrors, polished and "all things of this kind." That is, sensory data, so it refers to Ba (pistis), there is a difficulty: Plato believed in the existence of physical objects and sense data: therefore also looking at the statues remains, but distinguish between them and the shadows of the wall is a first necessary stage of education. Plato certainly did not think it possible to abstain from looking at sensitive data and instead look to material objects: even the keeper, when he returns to the Cavern, look at the shadows and figurines. It is with conviction that man does not use the sensory data from which to make inferences about material objects.

Pistis means "conviction." Eikadsein eikasia comes from the verb. The root idea is "to treat such a thing as another" may mean then "compared", "compare". In some contexts, such as the phrase "eikasai hos" can mean "guess" in the sense of "guided by similarity." The word pistis is used by Plato elsewhere almost technical sense. Pistis is the best factual state of the world, physically we can accomplish ourselves.

As for the distinction between Aa and Ab, the man in the confused state of mind Ab objects and distinguishes man Aa. Plato says that the mathematical assumptions used to proceed from them to draw conclusions, and secondly, making use of diagrams continuously sensitive. By contrast, Plato says that if a man is to attain true knowledge will have to destroy the hypothesis, using them as starting points for finding a anhypotheté arche, a non-hypothetical point which is located in moles supercelestial hyperouranós or place that we can say in ontological terms used by Plato himself, who is epekeina tes ousias, beyond being, it is the Idea of ​​Good to Agathon. The mathematician looks at the man who dreams that can not realize the distinction between the logos and the form itself. Plato takes the image logos and eikon, eidolon of the Idea and often uses this language.

By dialectic, intelligence perceives things in themselves, or rather, the essence of things. Take advantage of all the rational things that are in (appearances) or perhaps behind appearances, to go to the intelligible, to begin that path should lead to the underground prison to the intelligible sun, then discover the position of the geometry and all other sciences. Undoubtedly, the shadows studying science, simulations, but these shadows, these simulations allow us to ascend into the shining sun consideration, arduous journey that is by means of the dialectic in which the dialectic rises. The geometry of the real is a dream vision, enslaved to a hypothesis, but, says Plato, there is a time when we suppress the assumptions (and the term is certainly anairein so difficult to translate the German term aufheben as in Hegel) , that we get rid of them, and to a general science book conceived to be one of the degrees by which we spent to go to what is properly intelligible. Such is the dialectic that captures everything in reason of its essence. However, there is an upper limit of the dialectic, because it can not be defined, can not be really known, but only budget or, more accurately, postsupuesto.

Education.

Education in Plato develops in two phases. The first one covers childhood and youth, through age 20. The second, higher education, extending from adulthood to maturity. It covers between 20-35 years.

Phase 1, guardians.

Phase 2, guardians perfect philosophers.

The Phase 1 includes gymnastics and music. It is to produce citizens capable of fulfilling their proper role of guards. Needed for this:

-Fitness.

-Mind.

The virtues (Aretai) required are courage, strength of character, devotion, firm convictions. Physical education is not limited to developing the body, but oriented to the formation of character.

Music is in addition to music or humanistic art education. Art has an exceptional power for the formation of character, both in nature and the effects it produces in the soul. Art is mimesis, imitation, and has printed a large force able to instill in the soul beliefs and opinions stimulating ways to think and act in correspondence with the images of reality that we offer. Art is the educational tool of choice for this level. Therefore establishing censorship. The founders of the State must ensure civil theology. Poets must only imitate what is virtue, courage, wisdom, piety, dignity. Music should be masculine and brave and not a weak music, pleasure-oriented. All art censorship is carried out on behalf of the supreme Idea of ​​Good.

Once the education gymnastics and music, most of which have passed this stage will be guards. Some of them, the best, will advance to the next stage. Will be those who have excelled both in his love for the city, for their intellectual ability and perseverance in the study.

The philosopher Plato.

It is necessary to define what is a philosopher. For Plato needed a change, the philosophers should be kings, unless kings are philosophers. The theory of Ideas ocuprr his post again, there is, on the one hand, those who are fond of entertainment and, on the other hand, those who are lovers of beauty, those who only want to see the Beautiful. The latter are very scarce, but they are the only ones out of the dream state. This sleep state than is necessary is the view out the doxa, is an intermediate state between being and nonbeing. The things that depend on the views are quite different from those that are object of knowledge, but we must not say that the opinion addresses the non-knowledge, is something intermediate part of being and non-being is a mixture.

The philosopher is a lover of all reality, he wants the truth, not worried about death is fair. Amasa and maintain knowledge, is a friend of proportion. The multitude is not in any way a philosopher, and it's hard to stay philosopher philosopher. We must find the form of government in which the degeneration of the philosopher is difficult, even impossible. What predominates is the Idea of ​​Good. In Book VI Plato speaks of the great paradox of the perfect state must be established by the perfect sage, and this, in turn, can not be more perfect than in the state where they do philosophy. There you have it, a chance to submit a philosopher-king or before a philosopher-king. The philosopher who has ascended to the ideas coming down to the cave to help men out of the dream in which they are immersed and provide meaning and truth to life. Now you get to base the two statements of Socrates, that virtue is one, and that virtue is knowledge. It is knowledge of Good, of Good single intelligible sun gives birth and development of all that is.

As the sun makes the colors, Good knowledge bases makes things knowable, that is, visible to our eye intelligible.

The existence of the philosopher is paradoxical in the sense that it is against the doxa, in the sense that there is a tension in him.



























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